Judgement & Decision Making (Part 2 - Senses)

This is the second of a series of articles which will look at Command Judgement and Decision Making. (Part 1 - Introduction) is here.

Each part needs to be read in the sequential order presented as this is the way I believe you mentally go about using your Judgement to make a decision. There is no point in reading Part 2 before Part 1.

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Senses

Senses are the physiological methods of perception, or how our bodies receive the “raw data” information and then transmit it to our brain.

Why is this important in a discussion on Judgement and Decision Making? Well, to use good Judgement and arrive at a sound decision requires information. To react requires recognition. The senses provide the relatively “unfiltered” raw data at the very beginning of the Judgement process.

We are literally bombarded with sensory inputs throughout our lives and these are detected by a number of different types of human senses (the number varies depending on who you believe and how they define “sense”). For our purposes we will briefly discuss the 5 “Far Senses” that most people are familiar with and 5 “Near Senses” that you may not be totally aware of.

(Click on the image for a larger view. This diagram will build with each additional Part).

Far Senses

The conventional or “classical” five senses are sight, hearing, touch, smell and taste. These are the senses that most people are familiar with and provide most of our sensory information. They are called the “Far Senses” as the information inputs are received from outside the body (external sources).

Sight (Vision)

Sight is the most important sensory input we have as humans and as pilots (it provides about 80% of our sensory information input). Some scientists argue that vision is actually two different senses as we use different receptors to detect colour (frequency) and brightness (amplitude). Also we have two eyeballs, slightly separated, that provide us with stereopsis (the perception of depth). Vision gathers far more information in far less time than any of our other senses (“a picture is worth a thousand words”). Each eye is capable of sending to the brain about 1,000,000,000 bits of information every second.

Hearing (Audition)

Hearing is probably the second most important sense for us. This is an extremely important sense for us to communicate with (other crew members, ATC etc.) and communication is one of your required core skills as a Captain.

Touch (Tactition)

Touch is used to manipulate switches, knobs or dials and to “feel” your control inputs (and their feedback) into the flight control system. You will also be able to detect strange or unusual vibrations through the airframe. It is useful to get your F/O’s attention (when you punch him in the arm, however, this is considered to be poor CRM. Depending on the cockpit gradient you establish and your projection of authority and power you risk getting a tactile response back from him!).

Smell (Olfaction)

Not utilised very much normally, but smell will rapidly get your attention if you detect the “brown smell” of defective electrical equipment, raw Jet A1 or any burning smell. A nice smelling(?) crew meal may also jolt you awake.

Taste (Gustation)

Probably the least important sense for us as pilots (depends on the importance you place on your crew meals and/or what you choose to place in your mouth).

Near Senses

These senses may not be as familiar to you as the Far Senses. These senses are called the “Near Senses” as the information inputs are received from within the body (internal sources).

Balance and Acceleration (Equilibrioception)

The Vestibular sense, is the perception of balance or acceleration (inner ear). It is easy to produce illusions from this sense in our three dimensional and multi “G” aviation world.

Body Awareness (Proprioception)

The Kinaesthetic sense, is the perception of body awareness and is the "unconscious" awareness of the relationship between positions of the body (e.g. you can close your eyes and touch your finger to your nose). This sense also enables you to reach out “automatically” for a switch without looking for it and to pull back “just this much” on the control column or side stick to produce the required change in attitude.

Temperature (Thermoception)

The sense of heat and the absence of heat (cold) by the skin.

Pain (Nociception)

This sense is physiological pain of near-damage or damage to tissue (see the Touch section about getting your F/O’s attention).

Internal Organs (Interoception)

The sensory system of your internal organs (e.g., heart rate, hunger, digestion, state of arousal, mood, etc.). You know when you need to “visit the little boy’s room” or, if you’ve undertaken a hypobaric chamber hypoxia simulation, what your individual hypoxia symptoms are.

Sense Limitations

Each of these senses has certain very specific limitations. The sensor or detector can only sense inputs of a certain kind and usually within a narrow physical or physiological band.

For example you can only “see” with your eyes. You can’t see with your ears as your auditory system is not designed to detect light. Visible light has to enter and be detected by the eye (you can’t see through the back of your head). That “visible light” has to be of a very specific frequency. A typical human eye will respond to electromagnetic frequencies in air from about 400-790 terahertz – red to violet colours. The light that does eventually enter your eye has further limitations. Acute vision is only possible within a narrow cone of central vision, the rest of the detected light is your peripheral vision.

So you do not receive visual information if you’ve got your eyes closed, if the light is coming from outside of your visual field of view or if it is in the infra-red or ultra-violet frequency range (i.e. not in the visible spectrum of light).

You will also not be able to receive certain visual information when the visual system reaches its physical limitations. You can’t see an aircraft coming out of the sun as the sun’s brightness is too great for the human eye to accommodate and the contrast between the aircraft and the sun is entirely swamped (also you can’t see black cats in black coal cellars). You can only see objects of a certain finite size; your eye’s resolving power (I bet you have a hard time seeing an aircraft during the day at 40 nm, but just because you can’t see it doesn’t mean that it’s not there).

Your own personal sensor may also be defective in some way. You may require corrective glasses for your defective vision (within certain aviation medicine limitations) or your higher frequency hearing may be damaged (you should have worn those ear defenders/plugs on all those external preflights!).

Your personal sensor is also affected by your physical state. If you’re tired and fatigued you may not be able to focus your eyes as quickly or be more light sensitive than when you are rested.

All of your other senses suffer from some form of different limitations and these restrictions affect the amount, type and quality of the “raw data” that your physical senses actually detect and send to your brain.

And it is these eventual raw data sensory signals that get sent to your brain for you to use to execute your Judgement and arrive at a decision. So if you have restrictions of raw data information going in you may not have the entire Big Picture and so could quite possibly rely on that “degraded” or “incomplete” information to use in your Judgement process and so reach a less than optimal decision.

Sensory Conclusion

Each of your human sensory systems has its’ own particular physical and/or physiological limitations. If you are at least aware of these sense limitations and/or illusions and errors, then you can take this into account throughout the Judgement process.

This sensory information input stuff all might seem completely unrelated to judgment and decision making, but it is where it all begins. To react requires recognition. You have to detect or sense a change in your environment or situation (recognise) before you can start to cognitively process that sensed information to eventually arrive at an output decision (react).

Being aware of what information you receive (and what senses are involved and their possible limitations and weaknesses) can help you in formulating a sound decision from the entire Judgement process.

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Judgement and Decision Making (Part 3 – Perception).

This is only MY attempt at analysing Judgement and Decision Making – I’m just a professional aviator, not a psychologist so my thoughts may not conform with academia, but it is based on a real pilot’s perspective. What would you rather have; a psychologist explaining aviation or an aviator explaining psychology?

I welcome any feedback about this article. Please add YOUR pilot input (or if any psychologists read this, your thoughts) by using the COMMENTS link below.

Leader/Follower Interacting Skills

Dr. Maureen Pettitt and Mr. Joseph Dunlap of Western Michigan University have identified several "interacting skills" that both effective Leaders and followers applied as necessary to ensure task accomplishment.

A description of each skill and behaviour representative of the skill is described below:

• Initiative – begins an action, without external direction, to overcome a perceived deficiency



• Influence – obtains commitment from others to ideas or actions using effective interpersonal skills, styles and methods



• Adaptability – adjusts to changing environments, ambiguity, and abnormal situations



• Receptiveness – encourages, pays attention to, and conveys understanding of another's ideas, comments or questions



• Modelling – exhibits behaviour consistent with the company's highest technical and ethical standards



• Envisioning – creates and articulates a picture of the future or a desired state

If you, as the Captain, foster these “interacting skills” by displaying them yourself and encouraging and allowing your First Officer and other followers in your team to utilise them, then you have displayed good Leadership. In doing so you have reduced the risks involved and as a result, have increased safety and efficiency.

These interacting skills are especially critical in our airline operations because of the constantly changing composition of Cockpit (and Cabin) crews and the shifting cockpit roles due to the rotation of PF/PM (and with the addition of Releif First Officers and Second Officers on Long Haul flights).

So encourage and display these 6 Interacting skills.

Followers

Good Leadership enhances followers, just as good followership enhances Leaders. (Heller and Van Til)

Leadership is not possible without followers. You have just spent a number of years as a First Officer – a follower. Don't forget what it was like to be a follower - that will make you a better Leader.


A superior and successful Leader will promote and foster good followership in the team by developing and nurturing essential follower skills. An effective follower;

• Works effectively as a team member



• Treats the Captain with the respect that is earned and is mindful of a positive Command Gradient



• Accepts all assigned tasks willingly and executes them to the best of their ability



• Maintains a positive attitude, especially when the situation is confused and changing



• Offers suggestions and uses assertion as appropriate, but without usurping the Captain’s authority



• Supports the chain of command, especially under stress



• Voices differences of opinion, but executes with vigour the eventual decision



• Demonstrates loyalty to the Company and its Leaders



• Places the task, team and Company interests above personal interests

Remember what it was like to be a First Officer and a follower. Recall the instances of good Captains letting you function efficiently and do your job and resolve not to emulate the poor Captains who suppressed their followers.

One of the essential qualities of good Leaders is that they look after their followers. Never forget to include your followers (First Officer, Cabin Crew etc.) in your sphere of Leadership.

It is your followers who determine if you are a good Leader, NOT you the Leader, or your superiors.

Good Leadership

Good leadership consists of motivating people to their highest levels by offering them opportunities, not obligations. (Lao Tzu)

Leadership is in the eye of the follower. (Simon Caulkin)

You should strive for excellence in Leadership – this will make you an excellent Captain.

While it is difficult to continuously project all of the following good Leadership qualities you should endeavour to display the majority of them at most times – otherwise you will lose the respect of your followers and team members. Poor Leaders are poor Captains.

Outlined below is a comprehensive list of characteristics, traits and values that good Leaders, and therefore good Captains, should possess and display:

• Leads by example



• Aviates, Navigates, Communicates and Manages – in that priority order



• Is an influential, credible, consistent role model with integrity and is aware that their every move is examined, judged, scrutinised and often copied by their followers



• Delegates when appropriate, regulates the tempo and pace when possible, spreads the workload, prioritises tasks and utilises available team members expertise so that spare mental capacity is available to allow management, planning, risk assessment, decision making and implementation of action



• Is highly driven, intrinsically motivated and innovative, but also fosters that same enthusiasm in their followers



• Sets a high personal standard, is a disciplined and skilled performer who readily and openly admits own mistakes



• Well organised, well prepared and as a result, rarely caught off guard



• Communicates well, but matches words with actions



• Has a sense of humour and promotes fun with excellence, along with a passion and joy for the job and task at hand



• Is calm in a crisis, tolerates ambiguity, applies common sense, simplifies complex situations and operates optimally, intelligently and flexibly when under pressure and is able to direct the team in difficult situations



• Establishes and maintains an appropriate positive Command gradient, leaves no doubt as to who is the Leader and is firm but fair



• Is approachable and establishes and maintains an open, respectful, sincere and supportive team atmosphere, being mindful of each team member’s welfare



• Is confident, proactive and readily and promptly takes command if the situation dictates and uses the correct and appropriate level of authority



• Involves other team members in the planning and decision making process and explains the rationale behind the final decision



• Relates well with other people and has good Interpersonal and CRM skills



• Able to modify and change Leadership styles to suit the particular situation



• Takes into account each individual’s needs and abilities, builds their self esteem and self satisfaction and provides opportunities for the individual to perform and gain experience



• Is aware of their followers’ workload, tasks, duties and abilities



• Builds, moulds, and engenders a sound team spirit and morale to maintain good team work, clearly states performance standards and objectives and monitors and guides the team’s performance

Do you have what it takes to be a good Leader?

My Command Course In Retrospect - Captain Jay

What follows is one particular successful Captain’s notes about his Command Course in one particular Airline – the good, the bad and the ugly.

We’ll call him Agent Jay (“…the difference between you and me is, I make this look good!”) to preserve his anonymity and de-identify the specifics. This will be a generalised account of what any Command Trainee could expect, in any Airline, flying any aircraft type. I have very slightly edited the text, to protect the innocent, but it is 97.5% straight from Captain Jay, in his own words.

Captain Jay emerged triumphant (a little battered and bruised) from the Command Training sausage machine about 10 months ago. This is real life Command stuff and contains some very pertinent points – read on if you dare!

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It goes without saying that preparation is essential, but just reading the books isn’t enough. You need friends and colleagues to discuss scenarios with. You need to make your own decisions based on the information available to you and have your friends critique your answers. They may suggest other courses of action or pick holes in your answers. You need to get into the books to find certain things but not to memorise them, just to find them and maybe just to see if that word was “should, shall, must or may”!


When people tell you not to let your guard down, they really mean it. When you feel comfortable and confident, that’s when you relax and miss small things. They may seem insignificant but they are all noticed and written in the training reports. Once you get up to the standard required for, say, the Command Line Check to become a Captain, you must work just as hard to maintain that standard in the flights leading up to it. That requires a surprising amount of effort.

Every small error or omission during training may be written up, even though your Trainer may now seem like a friend. These small things will add up and be looked at unfavourably during a review of your training reports. Your aim is to get perfect reports. If your Checker is sitting on the fence about something during the debrief, push him onto the favourable side! Ask him if he considers you suitable to carry on with the training or to stop the Course, then he should agree that you should continue with the Course and write a report to mirror that.

Formulate a method of dealing with problems.

With passenger problems, make sure you get as much info as you can. That may involve speaking to the passenger yourself, especially if safety is the issue and you need to do a character assessment. Otherwise use the ISM (Inflight Service Manager) and ground staff to get information for you. Remember that their opinion may be different to yours.

With technical problems, try to fix it. If you cannot, call an engineer to try and fix it ASAP (on the ground). While waiting, get as much info as you can. Use the QRH, FCOM 3 (Abnormal, Normal and Supplementary Procedures) and MEL to find out all you can, including if you can go without it. Engineers and the airline's engineering department are a tool for you to use but you must not trust them completely as they are human too. There are countless stories of engineers instructing pilots to do something contrary to an OEB (Operational Engineering Bulletin – takes precedence over FCOM 3 procedures) or even bare faced lying about a problem, particularly at some of our outports. Some engineers may need your input to help solve a problem. Make sure you get engineers to explain the problem well enough for you to understand exactly what is wrong and what the implications are.

On the subject of not trusting anyone, items written in as an ADD (Acceptable Deferred Defect – in the Aircraft maintenance Logbook) are sometimes wrong, despite having been written up days prior. Perhaps some Line Captains don’t check the small print regularly, or just missed it, but on your Command Course, when you look at an ADD in the MEL, make sure it’s right because your Checker or Trainer will be looking at it right after you. Use any available engineering sources before your flight to give you a heads up about ADDs and the procedures involved.

Don’t guess. Don’t formulate a strategy without all the info. Look it up. It’s not a memory test. You are allowed to look at the books. There may have been an amendment yesterday. This is why a good working knowledge of the books is required, or at least a good (updated) index of our manuals so that you can find things quickly.

While you may feel you want to back up your ISM on something, make sure it is the right decision. (S)he may have jumped to a conclusion without all the info. Think of the ramifications. One of my ISMs wanted to offload a female passenger for popping 20 pills. It turns out it was only about 5 pills and the passenger was a movie star. That wouldn’t have been good advertising for the airline if she’d complained to the newspapers the next day for being offloaded for taking Vitamin E!

ECAM/EICAS cautions require you to sit on your hands and think. They may go away. If there are no ECAM/EICAS actions you have hit a dead end straight away. Think resets (of computers and equipment), use the QRH for that, always. Cautions in busy phases of flight should be assessed and left until later (flaps retracted for example) if possible.

When you fly with a F/O, the biggest challenge is that you are no longer sitting next to an STC (Senior Training Captain), you are with a normal F/O who may be nervous about the STC sitting on the jump seat. At least now you can act more like a Captain, but ensure that you keep a ‘command gradient’ from left to right. With confident senior F/Os this may be difficult but there are tricks to keeping a tangible gradient, such as delegating ND range changes, frequency changes, FM page changes. The best way is to be one step ahead of him. Don’t give him the chance to prompt you for engine anti-ice, radio calls, TCAS traffic or anything at all.

A new challenge for you is to analyse his personality from the moment you meet him at dispatch. Is he a JF/O (Junior First Officer)? What are his limits? Which sector do you want him to fly? You may find, like me, that some JF/Os may appear under-confident but are some of the best operators we have. Similarly, some senior F/Os can appear confident so you trust them more, then they lose the plot and make a big mistake.You are constantly analysing the guy next to you, and hopefully monitoring him despite tiredness and complacency.

Gut instinct is one of your best tools. Before a Command Course we think that there is a special formula needed to make Command decisions, or that you may not have developed a Command decision process yet, but this is wrong. Whenever you are presented with a problem, as an F/O or a Command Trainee, you have always formulated a solution or plan of action. The only difference now is that you have to volunteer your thoughts first rather than wait for the Captain to voice his (as YOU are now the Captain). Over the years you have hopefully gained enough experience to now trust your gut instinct and to not doubt your ability to reach sensible decisions. I surprised myself through my Command Course at how many decisions were based on gut instinct rather than theoretical analysis, and were right!

The rest of it is down to luck…and your personality! If you are relaxed, confident and on top of everything, you will look good and fly through the Course. A day full of technical and weather challenges can either make you look superb or hopeless, that’s all down to you!

Some further thoughts about being the Captain:

Big picture stuff. Command Presence. Assertiveness. Awareness. Spare capacity. Intervention. Run the show. Set the tone. Professional. Businesslike. Be in control. Think ahead.

The standard operation should be second nature by now, leaving spare capacity for awareness and planning. That includes standard triggers, which must not be overlooked.

Direct the F/O, but don’t ride him. He doesn’t need to be your friend, he needs to do what you say when you say it. Don’t say “Can you…would you…please.” Say “Give me this…Activate the Approach Phase…Before Start Checklist”. No flippant remarks. Be serious.

Get the F/O to fly the aircraft the way you want it flown. I don’t care what you think, I want it, just do it! (but use appropriate CRM). Even with a friendly crew, do not let your guard down. Don’t accept everything the F/O says verbatim.

The flight must be safe, legal and efficient.

Delegate, direct, no need for please, it’s a big operation.

Anticipate and verbalise threats and strategies (to mitigate those threats). E.g. – Plan A is to regain the ILS before 1500’ with self vectoring and descent to 1600’. Plan B is to go around which will be non-standard towards an MSA of xxxx. (Communication of Intent and your plan).

Aim for zero error. If an error occurs try to get back to the zero error position ASAP. (If you fly into a thunderstorm, get out. If you have a tech problem, try to fix it. If you get high, get down.)

What’s next? Think ahead. (Packs to come on. Engine Anti-Ice on for take-off. Call Departures after flap retraction. Speed control required while in selected speed)

Eager F/O? Beat him to it. Out-eager him. Verbalise everything!

If the command gradient feels just right, increase it! (don’t over do it though.)

Give reminders to the PF. Direct his FM page selection if necessary. Direct his choice of runway exit if necessary. (He stomps on brakes for a nearby exit, tell him to take the next one.)

In quiet moments, say something relevant. Look ahead, amend something, check something. However, never miss an opportunity to keep your mouth shut! Some comment you make may prompt a difficult question.

Volunteer information on events that occur. If there’s the possibility of a missed approach, consider TCAS ALL or ABOVE.

Any ‘gut reaction’ is probably correct; act on it.

Aim to impress, not to be average. Sell yourself to your Trainer or Checker.

Think ahead of the aircraft even when PM and ask him to clarify his plan. (“Weather ahead, do you want a heading?”)

Look for problems before they arise and have a plan to counter them.

Confirm ATC desired speed even when under positive speed control.

Monitor aircraft in front (and behind) on TCAS very closely and listen to instructions given to him by ATC.

No-one knows what I’m thinking. The Checker needs to know my thought process so verbalise them.

Think through briefs to yourself first, then brief the PM.

You are the last line of defence. It must be right!

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Thanks Captain Jay for that sage advice.

What do you think? Is he right, wrong or you haven’t got a clue? Add your comments by clicking on the COMMENTS button below.

Cockpit Gradient

Make sure that you read the Leadership Styles article before you go any further as that will explain the types or styles of Leadership discussed later in this article.

At all times you should maintain a positive cockpit gradient, that is to say, YOU as the Captain should be the one running the show. Normally you will the one with the most experience and knowledge, otherwise you would not be in a position of Command.

A positive cockpit gradient is essential to maintain an effective Leadership role. If you end up with a negative cockpit gradient your First Officer is running the show and you have given up your Leadership role and adopted or allowed yourself to transform into a follower. The cockpit gradient can be either steep or shallow, but should always remain positive.

Experience

The relative cockpit “levels” of the LHS and RHS vary depending on the experience levels of the Captain and First Officer and the situation encountered.

For most of the time you will encounter normal experience levels between you and your First Officer and you will face routine situations.





This results in a moderate and “normal” cockpit gradient which facilitates the usual use of the Participative style of Leadership.




An experienced Captain (a high cockpit level) and an inexperienced First Officer (a low cockpit level) will have a steep cockpit gradient.

An inexperienced Captain and an experienced First Officer will have a shallow cockpit gradient, but it still should be positive.

Situation

A time critical situation will require the Captain to “increase” his cockpit level as you take on more of the decision making, risk assessment and more actively Lead your team. This has the effect of steepening the overall cockpit gradient.

A routine flight will not place any great demands on either cockpit crew and so the cockpit levels will be low and the cockpit gradient may be normal to quite flat.

Changing Leadership Styles

If a routine flight is coupled with a new and inexperienced Captain (a low cockpit level) and an experienced First Officer (a high cockpit level), a very shallow cockpit gradient would result.




A shallow cockpit gradient lends itself to a Delegative style of Leadership. Ensure that the cockpit gradient remains positive. You must still retain the overall Leadership role.




In a complex, difficult, time critical situation the Captain will be required to rapidly elevate his cockpit level. If this occurs with a new and inexperienced Junior First Officer, the cockpit gradient will steepen quickly.







A steep cockpit gradient lends itself to an Authoritarian style of Leadership.





Between these two extremes lie many different angles of cockpit gradient, from steep to shallow. The often varying cockpit gradient will influence to some extent what Leadership style you employ to react to the given crew composition, crew experience and the conditions and situation that you find your team in. Remember that good Leaders vary their Leadership style to suit the situation.

Which Leadership style you eventually choose to use will result from the experience levels within the cockpit, the situation and how demanding it is and, of course, your knowledge of Leadership, coupled with common sense and effective CRM.

Situational Leadership

Although good leaders use all three Leadership styles (Authoritarian, Participative or Delegative), with one style normally dominant, bad Leaders tend to stick with only one style.

There is no one right Leadership style that will suit all situations. Your Leadership style needs to subtlety change and shift between the various different Leadship styles to suit the particular situation that you and your team experience.

The style of Leadership that you use with a very senior and experienced First Officer (likely Participative or Delegative) will be inappropriate for use with an inexperienced Junior First Officer (Authoritarian may be appropriate, gradually merging into Participative when trust and competence has been gained).

In time critical situations where safety is involved an extremely Autocratic style may be required. You do not have the time to discuss the situation as the risk is too great.

In other situations you may be so involved with the other responsibilities of Command that you have little choice but to be extremely Delegative to manage your workload.

The Delegative style is also effective when your followers know more about the situation than you do (e.g. you have never operated into a new Port, but your First Officer has operated into there numerous times or a member of your crew has experienced an unusual situation or emergency before).

All three styles can be used for complex and unusual situations. For example, you may determine that the present course of action is not working and so direct a new plan (Authoritarian). In implementing this new plan you may ask for your team’s information, input and ideas to refine your plan (Participative). Finally you may delegate tasks to implement action to effect the plan (Delegative).

Remember that you are always ultimately responsible for the conduct of the flight and are accountable for not only your decisions and actions but also for your followers decisions and actions (right or wrong).

As a general rule, the members of your team are all adequately trained and skilled, with the requisite level of knowledge and will normally prefer a Participative style of Leadership – they desire and want to be involved. This style is the best to promote CRM.

So be prepared to alter your Leadership style to best suit the particular situation you and your team find yourself facing.

Leadership Styles

Leadership style is the manner and approach of providing direction, implementing plans, and motivating people. Leadership style is very individual and how you incorporate those characteristics into your own individual Leadership style is entirely up to you. There is just no way that Leadership can be reduced to a "cookie cutter", simplistic, "do it this way" type of approach.

There are a number of different Leadership styles. Head on over to Don Clark's "The Art & Science Of Leadership" for a more comprehensive discussion on Leadership. For our Command purposes we will look at the following three:

Authoritarian or Autocratic

This is a direct and dominant style of Leadership characterised by strong and individualistic people. This type of Leader does not involve subordinates, likes to maintain as much control as possible, make decisions independently and is very task orientated. Exercises authority rather than Leadership. Most followers resent this type of Leadership in normal circumstances. The focus is firmly on the Leader.

Participative or Democratic

This is a shared Leadership style with the Leader including and involving their followers to make the most of the team’s strengths and minimise their weaknesses. However the Leader maintains the final decision making authority. The focus is on the team.

Delegative or Free Reign

In this style the Leader allows his followers to get on with their tasks relatively unsupervised and make their own decisions. This may be because the followers have the required skills or information or because the Leader delegates to competent and suitably skilled followers (good) or because the Leader abrogates his responsibility due to laziness or incompetence or defers to others (bad). The focus is on the followers.

There is no right or wrong way. But more importantly, YOU will have to "discover" what works for you and how you will adopt and adapt these Leadership characteristics and traits into YOUR way of doing things as the Captain (see Situational Leadership).

It's all about learning and educating yourself about Leadership.